Which structures form connections

Your email address will not be published. Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. Skip to content. Home » Biology Biology. September 26, thanh. Gap junction. Types of built-in wireless network connections?

Does plasma membrane provide structural support? Which element does not need to be configured to support SSH connections to a router or switch? Why do some monuments have a triangular support? What structures help support plants? Structures that support and protect your body are in the? What structures do radial ridges support in coral? What are found on the support phase of the PR?

What structures provide support to the sponge? Which pillows support certain bone structures? Can you access the internet using a standard telephone line if you have a modem?

What do USB and Firewire connections have in common? How many peer network connections does Windows 7 Ultimate support? Study Guides. Trending Questions. Still have questions? Find more answers. Previously Viewed. Which structures form connections for support and communication between like cells? Unanswered Questions. What characteristics of a tragic hero does Macbeth possess and banquo lack?

What could result if a 30 year old lawyer continued to eat as he did as a 17 years old football player? What is the function of resorcinol in the seliwanoff's test? How do you maximally develop the intelligence quotient of a child? A similar strategy utilizing a hybrid calcium indicator Calcium Green FlAsH could also enable detection of gap junctional couplings, by monitoring the intercellular propagation of calcium waves in gap junction coupled cells Tour et al.

Given the electrical properties of gap junctions, optogenetics is yet another useful tool for mapping gap junctions, as an electrical signal generated by light-activated channelrhodopsins Nagel et al. Recently, Wang et al. Applying blue laser illumination to the mIPNs induced depolarization of some mPNs; this effect was not altered by the nicotinic receptor antagonist mecamylamine but was sensitive to the shakB 2 mutation which affects innexin-8 Thomas and Wyman, ; Phelan et al.

Moreover, unlike the dual-electrode whole-cell patch-clamp technique, the ChIEF-based method is unidirectional and cannot be used to identify rectifying gap junctions. Compared to previous methods, these two strategies exemplified by Pado and ChIEF do not require an exogenously applied substrate, which simplifies the experimental protocol and makes them more feasible for use in in vivo applications. In addition, because they have relatively faster kinetics on the order of milliseconds to seconds , these methods can be used to collect repeated measurements, which is essential for studying the dynamics of the strength of gap junctional connections at high temporal resolution.

On the other hand, these approaches require the use of glass micropipettes, reducing their throughput. Moreover, one needs to block chemical synapses when using ChIEF to detect electrical synapses, which may alter the normal state of the nervous system. Gap junctions play an extremely important role in mediating cell-cell communication, and their distribution and dynamics are essential for maintaining normal physiological function and homeostasis.

Although researchers have been able to link genetic mutations with these conditions, identifying precisely which cell populations are affected by these mutations has been far more difficult. In a more physiological context, single-cell transcriptomics has revealed that both neurons and glia are more heterogeneous than previously believed Lake et al. In addition, connexins and innexins are encoded by multiple genes, giving rise to a wide diversity of gap junctions. For example, the mouse and human genomes contain 20 and 21 connexin-encoding genes, respectively Sohl and Willecke, , and the Caenorhabditis elegans and Drosophila melanogaster genomes contain 25 and 8 innexin-coding genes, respectively Starich et al.

Therefore, investigating the function of gap junctions in distinct cell types and in an isoform-specific manner remains extremely challenging.

To overcome these challenges, new methods providing improved genetic specificity, high spatial resolution, and functionally relevant temporal resolution are urgently needed. Ideally, these methods should be non-invasive and technically simple to perform, thereby facilitating their use in in vivo applications, allowing researchers to study gap junctions in a more physiological setting.

In principle, using genetically encoded tools provides a possible solution. On the other hand, the patch-clamp—based Pado and ChIEF strategies provide faster kinetics and do not require an exogenous substrate, making the background signal easier to control by regulating the expression level Wang et al. However, each of these methods includes a non-genetically encoded component e.

The vast majority of genetically encoded methods used to date are based on the diffusion of target molecules such as esters, ions, peptides, or synthetic dyes through gap junctions.

In each case, the electrochemical gradient that drives this diffusion is generated exogenously e. In a system comprised exclusively of genetically encoded optogenetics-based components, both the generator and the reporter would be proteins e. This non-invasive optogenetics-based system could be used to control and image a large number of cells simultaneously, and the background fluorescence could be minimized greatly by controlling the expression of the generator and reporter.

Given the wide range of clear benefits associated with this approach, genetically encoded optogenetics represents one of the most promising strategies for studying gap junctions in the future. A proposed ideal optogenetics-based system for mapping gap junctions. A The principle behind the proposed optogenetics-based system shown on the left with its theoretical performance index on the right, similar to Figure 1.

B A proposed multiplex, optogenetic system for mapping gap junction using two pairs of bio-orthogonal generators and reporters and its application in an intact tissue with heterogeneous cell types. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. Abbaci, M. Advantages and limitations of commonly used methods to assay the molecular permeability of gap junctional intercellular communication.

Biotechniques 45, 33—52, 56— Ansar Ahmed, S. Sex hormones, immune responses, and autoimmune diseases. Mechanisms of sex hormone action. Google Scholar. Antonsen, B.

Differential dye coupling reveals lateral giant escape circuit in crayfish. Azzam, E. Direct evidence for the participation of gap junction-mediated intercellular communication in the transmission of damage signals from alpha -particle irradiated to nonirradiated cells. Baranova, A. The mammalian pannexin family is homologous to the invertebrate innexin gap junction proteins.

Genomics 83, — Bennett, M. Electrical coupling and neuronal synchronization in the Mammalian brain. Neuron 41, — Beyer, E. Antisera directed against connexin43 peptides react with a kD protein localized to gap junctions in myocardium and other tissues.

Cell Biol. Biegel, A. Amino Acids 31, — Bloomfield, S. The diverse functional roles and regulation of neuronal gap junctions in the retina. Bruzzone, R.

Pannexins, a family of gap junction proteins expressed in brain. Chen, T. Ultrasensitive fluorescent proteins for imaging neuronal activity. Nature , — Dakin, K. Cell Commun. Methods 2, 55— Decrouy, X. Functional characterization of Cx43 based gap junctions during spermatogenesis. Dermietzel, R.

Differential expression of three gap junction proteins in developing and mature brain tissues. Pannexins, distant relatives of the connexin family with specific cellular functions? Bioessays 31, — Dieck, S. Glia 25, 10— Dobrenis, K. Human and mouse microglia express connexin36, and functional gap junctions are formed between rodent microglia and neurons.

Scrape-loading and dye transfer. A rapid and simple technique to study gap junctional intercellular communication. Cell Res. Furshpan, E.

Mechanism of nerve-impulse transmission at a crayfish synapse. Transmission at the giant motor synapses of the crayfish. Garg, S. Staphylococcus aureus -derived peptidoglycan induces Cx43 expression and functional gap junction intercellular communication in microglia.

Giaume, C. Control of gap-junctional communication in astrocytic networks. Trends Neurosci. Giepmans, B. The gap junction protein connexin43 interacts with the second PDZ domain of the zona occludens-1 protein. Giustina, A. Pathophysiology of the neuroregulation of growth hormone secretion in experimental animals and the human.

Han, X. Multiple-color optical activation, silencing, and desynchronization of neural activity, with single-spike temporal resolution. PLoS One 2:e Horikawa, K. A versatile means of intracellular labeling: injection of biocytin and its detection with avidin conjugates. Methods 25, 1— Hoshi, H. Components and properties of the G3 ganglion cell circuit in the rabbit retina.

Ishikawa, M. Ito, K. Cell Tissue Res. Jin, L. Single action potentials and subthreshold electrical events imaged in neurons with a fluorescent protein voltage probe. Neuron 75, — Kang, B. Pado, a fluorescent protein with proton channel activity can optically monitor membrane potential, intracellular pH, and map gap junctions.

Katz, B. The measurement of synaptic delay, and the time course of acetylcholine release at the neuromuscular junction. B Biol. Kleopa, K. The role of gap junctions in Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease.